Proceedings of the International Conference on Banking, Accounting, Management, and Economics (ICOBAME 2018)

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60 articles
Proceedings Article

Can Prostitution in Indonesia be Eliminated?

Budhi Haryanto, Bambang Sarosa, Dwi Hastjarjo, Budi Setyanta, Edi Cahyono
Previous studies have revealed a lot of personality factors to explain the negative behavior of a society. In this study, the concept of personality is adopted to predict the behavior of prostitution which is seen from the intention to leave prostitution. In addition, this study also observed Age as...
Proceedings Article

Wages, Life Expectancy and Working Population in Indonesia: The implications of demographic bonus

Sari Lestari Zainal Ridho, Abdur Razzaq, Kusnadi Kusnadi
Increased life expectancy and the large number of elderly population in Indonesia are condition that appears today as an implication of demographic phenomenon. This increase in life expectancy should be balanced with an increase in the number of people who work, hence the elderly population contributes...
Proceedings Article

Efficiency and Elasticity of Labor Use on Economic Sectors in Indonesia

Tongam Sihol Nababan
The research objectives are: (1) to analyze the level of efficiency and elasticity of the use of labor in Gross Domestic Product (GDP) based on economic sectors in Indonesia in the period of 2010-2016, (2) to find out the changes/ transformations in the use of labor among the economic sectors in Indonesia...
Proceedings Article

The Effect of Leader Member Exchange (LMX), Perceived Overqualification, and Job Satisfaction on Turnover Intention in the Indonesian Ministry of Defense

Hondor Saragih, Yetti Supriyati, Sri Indah Nikensari
We examine the influence of leader member exchange and perceived overqualification on turnover intention. We argue that leader member exchange decreasing turnover intention, while perceived overqualification yielding higher turnover intention. We further predict that job satisfaction mediates the relationship...
Proceedings Article

Work Motivation of Prison Officer Post Organizational Change

Fatimah Malini Lubis, Moch. Asmawi, Billy Tunas
This research is to investigate work motivation of prison officer at female prison Class IIA Jakarta post organizational change. This research uses a qualitative method with a case study approach; using purposive and snowball sampling. The informants are prison officers in Jakarta. This research found...
Proceedings Article

Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) and Firm Value: The role of investor sentiment in green companies listed on the IDX

Intan Puspitasari, Dwi Irawati, Mahendra Galih Prasaja, Ridwan Baraba
This study aims to examine the role of investor sentiment on the relationship between corporate social responsibility and corporate value. Based on the previous literature, CSR which is a positive signal revealed by the company will influence investor sentiment. Investors can make decisions to make investments...
Proceedings Article

Liquidity Risk of Islamic Banks in Indonesia

Dwi Irawati, Intan Puspitasari
The main aim of this paper is to investigate the factors that influence the liquidity risk of Islamic banks in Indonesia. The topic of Islamic banking liquidity risk is interesting because Islamic banks run based on the principle of profits sharing as well as third-party funds that are managed using...
Proceedings Article

Examining Islamic Religiosity on Consumer Muslim Fashion Trend Purchase Intention

Sulis Riptiono, Gunarso Wiwoho
In this article, we study examine the effect of the variable Islamic Religiosity toward consumer purchase intention on Muslim fashion trends by using the extended of theory of planned behavior as the grand of the theory. Respondents in this study were consumer Muslim in Central Java, Indonesia by using...
Proceedings Article

China’s Belt and Road Initiatives and Indonesia’s Maritime Fulcrum: Building scenarios for economic multipolarity in South East Asia

Cungki Kusdarjito
Global economic growth suffered a slowdown since the financial crisis in 2008 and it was never back to the level before the crisis. This becoming challenges for Indonesia to be able to sustain its economic growth. Moreover, the economic hegemony in the unipolar world is now replaced by multipolar worlds....
Proceedings Article

The Mediation of Job Engagement to Rewards and Recognition toward Organizational Citizenship Behavior and Task Performance

Ignatius Soni Kurniawan, Lusia Tria Hatmanti Hutami
The purpose of this research is to analyze whether job engagement mediates rewards and recognition toward organizational citizenship behavior and task performance of craft SMEs business in Kasongan, Bantul, Yogyakarta. The sampling method of this research used purposive sampling method by spreading questionnaire....
Proceedings Article

The Changing Academy (AMG) to the College (STMKG) in Order to Improve BMKG Organization Performance

Ita Soegiarto, Billy Tunas, Mahmudin Yasin
The purpose of this study was to determine the impact of changes from AMG (academy) to STMKG (the college) as an official school under the Agency of Meteorological Climatological and Geophysics of Indonesia (BMKG) in order to improve the performance of the BMKG organization. This study used a qualitative...
Proceedings Article

Capitalism and Islamic Economics: A viewpoint

Taofik Hidajat
This paper is a viewpoint paper, which offers a discussion on capitalism and Islamic economics. Through discussions about economic value and profit-sharing, there are enough reasons to make Islamic economics as an answer to various social and economic problems. Islamic economics have spiritual values,...
Proceedings Article

Determinants of Capital Structure

Bambang Sudiyatno, Sigit Nugroho, Yeye Susilawati, Ida Nurhayati
This study analyses the capital structure of manufacturing companies listed on the Indonesia Stock Exchange. Capital structure is an important part of the company, because it relates to the composition of the company's debt. Investors need to know the problems of the company's capital structure, as one...
Proceedings Article

Rationalism and Antropocentrism in Human Behaviour in Exploiting Natural Resources and Industrial Activities

Rochmani Rochmani, Safik Faozi, Adi Suliantoro
This study aims to explain whether the rationalism and anthropocentric views influence humans in taking their needs from nature and carrying out the industrial activities. The research method used in this study is socio-legal studies, the research approach used is a non-doctrinal approach and the research...
Proceedings Article

The Influence of Attitude and Herding on the Credit Decision-Making of Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises

Alvianita Gunawan Putri, Nungki Pradita, Ika Rosyada Fitriati
This research aims to analyse the influence of attitude and inner group (herding) in making credit decision by micro, small, and medium enterprises (MSMEs) person. The samples of this research was conducted with 150 samples of 1350 units population of MSMEs in Salatiga and using purposive sampling technique...
Proceedings Article

Service Quality and Location towards Customer Value and the Effect on Customer Satisfaction

Euis Soliha, Ajeng Aquinia, R. Basiya, Penunjang Waruwu, Mohamad Kharis
This research aims to analyse the influence of service quality and location towards customer value and the effect to customer satisfaction. The problem on this research is to find out how to increase the customer value in order to raise up customer satisfaction in line with the expectations. The population...
Proceedings Article

Determinant Earnings Persistence with Corporate Governance as Moderating Factors

Pancawati Hardiningsih, Teguh Parmono Hadi, Nenny Ariani
The aims of this research are to examine the effect of earning aggressiveness and tax aggressiveness with moderated corporate governance. Selected research samples were 68 manufacturing of consumer goods industry sector with purposive sampling technique. The analysis technique uses pure MRA with an interaction...
Proceedings Article

Co-synergy and Co-creation Value on Customer Behavioural Outcomes

R.A. Marlien, Alimuddin R.R, Sony Heru Priyanto, Roos Kities Andadari, John J.O.I Ihalauw
This study aims to get an empirical model of customer behavior in deciding to buy life insurance that is combined with financial investment. The underlined concept of this research is the marketing theory of relationship based on social interaction and resources (RbV), social exchange theory and agency...
Proceedings Article

Corporate Social Responsibility Moderated the Effect of Liquidity and Profitability on the Firm Value

Cahyani Nuswandari, Sunarto Sunarto, Afifatul Jannah, Ikromudin Ikromudin
This study aims to examine the effect of liquidity and profitability on firm value with corporate social responsibility as a moderating variable. The population of this study is a company that is included in the LQ_45 list since 2013 - 2016 with a population of 180 observations. The sampling technique...
Proceedings Article

The Effect of Motive, Product Quality, Price Perception and Brand Image toward Buying Decision Process

Suzy Widyasari, Ali Maskur, Mulyo Budi Setiawan, Try Sugiarto
This purpose of this study is to analyze the effect of motive, product quality, price perception and brand image toward buying decision process of Samsung smartphone. The population in this study were consumers who made a purchasing of Samsung smartphone in Semarang, Indonesia. The number of samples...
Proceedings Article

Determinants of Going Concern Audit Opinion

Ceacilia Srimindarti, Titiek Suwarti, Rachmawati Meita Oktaviani, Julindo Akhbal Fajar
The purpose of this study is to examine and analyze the influence of profitability, leverage and sales growth on going concern audit opinion. The populations of this study are manufacturing companies which were listed in Indonesia stock exchange. The sample selection was done by using purposive sampling...
Proceedings Article

Improving the Business Performance of Lumpia Micro Business Entities

Bogy Febriatmoko, Widhian Hardiyanti, Sartika Wulandari
This research was conducted on small and medium business. This research takes an object on the typical food Lumpia in Semarang. Lumpia is a snack like rolled food, made from shrimp, eggs and chicken meat. This research is a continuation of our previous research on Semarang's specialty foods, specifically...
Proceedings Article

An Empirical Study of Commercial Banks Performance: The Indonesian context

Elen Puspitasari, Sendyvia Candra Desfadlika, Bambang Sudiyatno, Muhaimin Muhaimin
The bank's performance is the achievement of the bank's operational activities in using its resources. The purpose of this study is to test the performance of banks listed on the Indonesia Stock Exchange. The data used is secondary data, which is obtained by purposive sampling method, and data analysis...
Proceedings Article

The Influence of Empowerment and Quality of Work Life to Career Plateau with Work Satisfaction as Intervening Variable

Bambang Suko Priyono, Tristiana Rijanti, Liliana Liliana, Belinda Christiana Handayani
This study is aimed to find out the influence of empowerment and quality of work life to work satisfaction. It is also to find out the role of work satisfaction as intervening variable in the influence of empowerment and quality of work life to career plateau. The population in this study is 128 workers...
Proceedings Article

The Effects of Profitability, Debt Policy and Dividend Policy on Company Value: An empirical study on the manufacturing companies listed on the Indonesia stock exchange in the period of 2014-2016

Titiek Suwarti, Ceacilia Sri Mindarti, Listyorini Wahyu Widati, Ari Nurjanah
This study aims to examine and analyze the effect of Profitability, Debt Policy and Dividend Policy on the Value of the Company. This study was conducted in Indonesia using a unit of analysis of go public manufacturing companies. The research population was a manufacturing company listed on the Indonesia...
Proceedings Article

Study of Perspective and Prospective Aspects on Indonesia Balance of Payment in 1980-2017

Gregorius Nasiansenus Masdjojo, Alimudin Rizal Rifai, Sri Isnowati, Mohamad Fauzan
This study aims to analyze the influence of Interest Rate, Economic Growth, Domestic Credit and Foreign Exchange against Foreign Reserves. The analysis is based on Monetary Approach to the Balance of Payment (MABP) theory. The object of research is the value of Indonesia Foreign Exchange Reserve. This...
Proceedings Article

The Influence of Competency and Job Satisfaction on Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB) with Servant Leadership as a Moderating Variable

Tristiana Rijanti, Kis Indriyaningrum, Toto Suharmanto, Suci Budi Utami
This study aims to analyze the influence of Competency and Job Satisfaction on Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB) With Servant Leadership as a Moderation Variables. The population in this study were all employees at the Central Statistics Agency (BPS) of Demak Regency, Kendal Regency, Semarang...
Proceedings Article

The Role of Work Environment on Bank Employees’ Performance

Endang Tjahjaningsih, Kristina Anindita Hayuningtias, Ignatius Hari Santoso, Ghoval Mohammad Syadly
Workload and Work Environment are several factors that can affect employees’ performance in their effort to achieve organizational goals. This study aims to investigate whether workload and work environment influence bank employee’s performance. The sample of this study is 130 front liners of PT Bank...
Proceedings Article

A Model of Increasing the Service Quality of Public Transportation Based on Quality Function Deployment

Rokh Eddy Prabowo, Anwar Mansyur, Zulkifli Aulia Rakhman
This research is aimed at analyzing the priorities for the consumer’s requirements of BRT Trans Semarang Corridor II in six different shelters. Ninety six respondents were selected based on the non-probability sampling with purposive sampling technique. The primary data were gathered in questionnaire,...
Proceedings Article

Tenant Management through Business Incubator Program

Lie Liana, Ajeng Aquinia, Fitika Andraini, Novita Mariana
Business incubator is a program aims to create a new self-employed entrepreneurs who are trained not to become a job seeker but actually a job creator. The incubator of which is an entrepreneurship unit that developed to provide space for students to develop their business proposal. The main activities...
Proceedings Article

The Portofolio Model of Exchange Rate Determination: The case of Rupiah exchange rate

Agus Budi Santosa, Agung Nusantara, Sri Nawatmi
Indonesia economy is prone to the world economy that makes Rupiah sensitive and volatile. Thus, it affects macroeconomic stability. In conclusion, Rupiah exchange rate should be maintained in order to maintain macroeconomic stability. An approach model development of Rupiah exchange rate is needed to...
Proceedings Article

Map of Financial Capabilities of the Provincial Region in Indonesia

Maryono Maryono, Ida Nurhayati, Batara Daniel Bagana
This study aims to map the financial capabilities of provinces in Indonesia which are divided into five regions: 1. Java and Bali, 2. Sumatra, 3. Kalimantan, 4. Sulawesi, 5. Nusa Tenggara, Maluku and Papua. The provincial financial capability is measured by the amount of revenue and growth in local income,...
Proceedings Article

Effect of Good Corporate Governance, Profitability and Leverage on Tax Avoidance Behavior Before and After Tax Amnesty (Empirical study on manufacturing company listed in Indonesia Stock Exchange period 2015-2016)

Jaeni Jaeni, Achmad Badjuri, Zati Rizka Fadhila
This study aims to analyze the effect of good corporate governance, profitability, and leverage on tax avoidance behavior and analyze differences in corporate tax avoidance behavior before and after the implementation of tax amnesty. Differences in tax avoidance behavior of companies that follow tax...
Proceedings Article

Earning Quality, Information Asymmetry and Cost of Equity Capital in Manufacturing Companies

M. G. Kentris Indarti, Isaura Tribuana Puteri, Sri Sudarsi
This study examines the direct and indirect impacts of earnings quality on cost of equity capital by using path analysis. The population in this study are manufacturing companies listed on the Indonesia Stock Exchange 2014-2016.Selected research samples were 108 manufacturing companies with purposive...
Proceedings Article

Antecedents and Consequence of Good Corporate Governance

Jacobus Widiatmoko, Moh. Irsad, Vitara Arta Ciputri
The purpose of this study is to examine the antecedents and consequence of good corporate governance (GCG). Antecedent factors considered in this study namely profitability, company size, and leverage, while the consequence of GCG is earnings management. The research data were obtaining from 90 companies...
Proceedings Article

Effect of Competence and Independence on Audit Quality with Auditor Ethics as Moderation Variable

Arief Himmawan D. N., Cahyani Nuswandari, Ahmad Zainudin
This study aims to obtain a behavioral model of auditors working in public accounting firms in audit quality. The concept of this study is the theory of virtue. The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of competence and independence on auditor quality with auditor ethics as a moderating...
Proceedings Article

The Effect of Team Work and Motivation of Nurses’ Work on the Quality of Health Services at a Military Hospital in Indonesia

Budi Santoso, Yetti Supriyati, Abdul Hadi Djamal
This research is to investigate the effect of team work and motivation of nurse’s work on quality of health services at a military hospital in Indonesia. This research is a quantitative research method survey with analysis approach path analysis with sample as many as 147 nurses. The way to collect the...
Proceedings Article

Copyright Proof of Creation in the Field of Science in Declarative Systems in Indonesia

Raden Murjiyanto
One of Intellectual Property Right (IPR) areas is Copyright, in deciding copyright, it is applied a system which is called as Declarative System. It means that copyright is created automatically when a creation is created which is realized in a form that has a specificity, without any obligation to register....
Proceedings Article

Relationships among Marketing Variables (Study of fashion and culinary industry)

Titi Laras, Titop Dwiwinarno, Ferri Kuswantoro, Mohammad Najmudin
For years many previous findings indicated significant relationships among marketing variables that impact purchasing and service. Nevertheless, few empirical studies were conducted to investigate the affected factors of the variables. Hence, with 44 and 31 respondents in fashion and culinary industries,...
Proceedings Article

Joint Selling and Packaging as Innovation for Food and Beverage SMEs

B. Tresno Sumbodo, Rini Anggraeni, Cungki Kusdarjito
Raw material prices, efficiency, quality assurance, innovation, product development, promotion, packaging, branding, market and bargaining positions are the main problems that are often faced by SMEs. In this article, we describe at least three interactional activities in the form of training and mentoring...
Proceedings Article

User Resistance to Use E-Parking System in Indonesia from the Status Quo Bias Theory Perspective: Evidence from Padang City, West Sumatera Province

Henri Agustin, Ade Elsa Betavia
E-parking system offers four advantages than conventional parking system, which are transparency, accountability, improving the quality of public services, and quality design. Unfortunately, the implementation of the e-parking system in Padang City failed, because it only runs less than 1 year. This...
Proceedings Article

A Synergy Model of Strengthening and Developing Creative Industries in Indonesian Cities

Edy Suandi Hamid, Awan Setia Dewanta, Muhammad Jauharul Maknun
This study aims to determine the dominant factors that influence the development of creative industries in Indonesia. In addition, this study also aims to see how much influence fiscal decentralization has in accelerating the development of the creative industry. Through these two objectives, this study...
Proceedings Article

Supervision of Midwife Coordinator to Antenatal Care Service Quality with Work Motivation as an Intervening Variable

Siti Aminah, Grace T. Solovida
Tegal Mortality Rate (AKI) of Tegal Regency in 2016 is 112 per 100,000 live births and in 2017 to 52.7 per 100,000 live births, antenantal service is a service provided to pregnant women by health workers to maintain pregnancy which is done according to standard of antenantal service defined in the standard...
Proceedings Article

The Influence of Competence and Independence toward Performance of the Government Internal Auditors with Auditor Ethics as a Moderating Variable

Uly Maria Ulfah, Fitri Lukiastuti
The in conducting guidance and supervision, the government's internal auditor, in addition to being required to comply with employment rules and regulations as a Civil Servant, is also required to comply with the APIP code of ethics and the established APIP audit standards. To produce high audit quality,...
Proceedings Article

The Influence of Culture toward Risk-Taking in SMEs in Regency of Ende, East Nusa Tenggara

L D Gadi Djou, Fitri Lukiastuti
This paper has purpose to examines how does culture influence risk-taking of SMEs, which is a key dimension of entrepreneurial orientation. Data from 40 self-administered questionnaires were utilized. Hofstede’s four cultural dimensions were adopted in stating the four hypotheses developed for this study....
Proceedings Article

The Influence of Growth Profitability, Leverage and Opportunity on Hedging Activities in State-Owned Enterprises Companies 2012-2016

Shela Pitangga, Siti Puryandani
Hedging is an action that can be carried out by companies that transact international to minimize the risk of exchange rates faced. The purpose of this study was to determine the significance of the effect of profitability, leverage, and the company's growth opportunities on hedging activities in state-owned...
Proceedings Article

Does the Audit Committee Moderate Tax Planning’s Effect on the Firm’s Solvability?

Wisnu Haryo Pramudya, Nung Harjanto, Slamet Herutono, Yavida Nurim
The purpose of this study is to examine the effect of tax planning which is moderated by the audit committee on the firm’s solvability. In this study, the independent variable is the tax planning and the dependent variable is the firm’s solvability. The authors also put the audit committee as moderating...
Proceedings Article

Legal Enforcement Model in Indonesia Capital Market Disputes to Make Substantive Justice

Sudiyana Sudiyana
Law enforcement in the capital market sector becomes a serious issue, because the varies pattern of capital market business practices is very difficult to identify and qualify which includes a crime and which are not criminal acts. This paper aims to find the ideal law enforcement model in capital market...
Proceedings Article

Characteristics of Sustainability Report Disclosure in Indonesia

Sri Astuti, Zuhrohtun Zuhrohtun, Kunti Sunaryo
This study investigates the readiness of companies in Indonesia in conducting sustainability reporting. Variables used in this study are economic performance disclosure, environmental performance and social performance as well as variable of intellectual capital. Economic performance disclosure, environmental...
Proceedings Article

Provincial Capital Expenditure Analysis in Eastern Indonesia and Indonesian West Area with Dummy Variable

Henry Sarnowo, Andreas Ronald Setianan
This study aims, firstly, to measure the magnitude of the effect of Regional Original Revenue (PAD), General Allocation Fund (DAU), Gross Regional Domestic Product (GRDP), and the population of provincial Capital Expenditures in Indonesia; second, to find out whether or not there is a difference between...
Proceedings Article

The Determinants of the Value of the Firm

Sri Yuli Waryati, Nining Widiyanti, Annisa Isparwati
This study aims to analyze the effect of Dividends per Share, earning per Share, and Debt to Equity Ratio on the Study Share Prices in the Food and Beverage industry sector listed on the IDX forthe2014-2017 period. The populationis16companies and the number of samplesis9 companies by passing the purposive...
Proceedings Article

The Economic and Social Externalities of the Existence of the Cigarette Industry

Joko P. Nugroho, Dewi Puspitasari, Ridwan Ridwan
This study aims to determine the economic and social externalities of the existence of the cigarette industry in Indonesia. This research is exploratory research with descriptive approach. The interview method is used to obtain information from respondents who are randomly selected or judgment sampling....
Proceedings Article

Satisfaction as Mediator in the Relationship between Service Quality and Image to Loyalty in the Retail Business

Eni Andari, Muhammad Najmudin, Bimo Harnaji
The purpose of this paper is to examine the relationship between the development of service quality, image, satisfaction, and loyalty to retail business customers in Yogyakarta. The survey was used to look at the relationships by collecting data through questionnaires. The sample was taken from 138 retail...
Proceedings Article

The Role of Technological Acceptance and E-Service Quality in Predicting Customer Satisfaction and Loyalty

Indah Fatmawati, Fitri Bintang Permatasari
This study investigated the influence of technology acceptance factors and e-service quality towards customer satisfaction and loyalty in online shopping context. An on-line causal survey was conducted in Yogyakarta, Indonesia. Sample was selected by purposive sampling criteria involving 150 users of...
Proceedings Article

The Impact of Increased Prices of Eggs on Consumer Purchases in Klaten Regency, Central Java, Indonesia

Retno Lantarsih, Tri Anggraeni Kusumastuti
In July 2018, the price of eggs in Klaten Regency experienced a sharp increase. The purpose of this study was to determine: (1) the effect of the increase in the eggs price on the decision to buy eggs by consumers, (2) the impact of the increased in the eggs price on the number of eggs purchased by consumers...
Proceedings Article

The Analysis of Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) For Personal Financial Management On Mobile Application Technology

Denies Priantinah, Mimin Nur Aisyah, Yavida Nurim
This study seeks to analyze the acceptability of technology for personal financial management applications using mobile application technology. This study explored the aspects of perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and intention to use of an android-based personal financial management application....
Proceedings Article

The Competitiveness of Regions in the Eastern Indonesia

Ridwan Ridwan, Sarwoko Sarwoko, Nurwiyanta Nurwiyanta, Kartinah Kartinah, Yanuar Saksono
This study aims to map the regionals competitiveness and examine the influence of several factors including health, education, infrastructures, institution, and information and communication technology (ICT) on regional competitiveness, both directly and indirectly through government expenditure and...
Proceedings Article

The Effect of Inflation Rate and Rupiah Currency Exchange Rate Fluctuation toward Stock Risk at Indonesia Capital Market

Basri Basri, Bimo Harnaji, Kartinah Kartinah
Equity premium is stock investment risk that it is necessary to consider to be included into free-risk return becomes return investor expectation. Equity premium inquirer occurred since it has been excessively extended to explain on capital asset pricing of Sharpe model. Equity premium explaining factor...
Proceedings Article

The Role of Prices Fairness on Intention to Online Transactions on Students in Yogyakarta

Sri Yuli Waryati, Budi Setyanta, Danang Wahyudi
This study aims to identify the effect of perceived prices on the intention to shop online. The sample in this study was students in Yogyakarta aged 17-24 years. The study sample of 100 people was collected using a convenience sampling technique guided by a questionnaire. Statistical analysis uses the...
Proceedings Article

How do Government Financial Statement Preparers Adapt to Accrual Accounting?

Hendrawan Santosa Putra, Tri Jatmiko Wahyu Prabowo
This paper aims to explore how government financial report preparers adapt to accrual accounting. This study uses data on interviews, observations, and documents about city governments in Indonesia. This study uses a case study method to explain the phenomena that occur. Categorization techniques use...